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It is included in most Windows Server operating systems as a set of processes and services. However, Active Directory eventually became an umbrella title for a broad range of directory-based identity-related services.
It authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a Windows domain type network, assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers, and installing or updating software. For example, when a user logs into a computer that is part of a Windows domain, Active Directory checks the submitted username and password and determines whether the user is a system administrator or normal user. Like many information-technology efforts, Active Directory originated out of a democratization of design using Request for Comments RFCs.
Also, X. Microsoft previewed Active Directory in , released it first with Windows Server edition, and revised it to extend functionality and improve administration in Windows Server Active Directory Services consist of multiple directory services.
It stores information about members of the domain, including devices and users, verifies their credentials and defines their access rights. The server running this service is called a domain controller. A domain controller is contacted when a user logs into a device, accesses another device across the network or runs a line-of-business Metro-style app sideloaded into a device.
It can create, validate and revoke public key certificates for internal uses of an organization. With an AD FS infrastructure in place, users may use several web-based services e. The former enables them to use the same set of credentials in a different network. As the name suggests, AD FS works based on the concept of federated identity. It uses encryption and a form of selective functionality denial for limiting access to documents such as corporate e-mails , Microsoft Word documents, and web pages , and the operations authorized users can perform on them.
These operations can include viewing, editing, copying, saving as or printing for example. IT administrators can create pre-set templates for the convenience of the end user if required.
However, end users can still define who can access the content in question and set what they can do. As a directory service, an Active Directory instance consists of a database and corresponding executable code responsible for servicing requests and maintaining the database.
The executable part, known as Directory System Agent, is a collection of Windows services and processes that run on Windows and later. Active Directory structures are arrangements of information about objects. The objects fall into two broad categories: resources e. Security principals are assigned unique security identifiers SIDs. Each object represents a single entity—whether a user, a computer, a printer, or a group—and its attributes.
Certain objects can contain other objects. An object is uniquely identified by its name and has a set of attributes—the characteristics and information that the object represents— defined by a schema , which also determines the kinds of objects that can be stored in the Active Directory.
The schema object lets administrators extend or modify the schema when necessary. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of Active Directory objects, deactivating or changing these objects can fundamentally change or disrupt a deployment. Schema changes automatically propagate throughout the system.
Once created, an object can only be deactivated—not deleted. Changing the schema usually requires planning. The Active Directory framework that holds the objects can be viewed at a number of levels. The forest, tree, and domain are the logical divisions in an Active Directory network.
Within a deployment, objects are grouped into domains. The objects for a single domain are stored in a single database which can be replicated. Domains are identified by their DNS name structure, the namespace.
A domain is defined as a logical group of network objects computers, users, devices that share the same Active Directory database. A tree is a collection of one or more domains and domain trees in a contiguous namespace and is linked in a transitive trust hierarchy. At the top of the structure is the forest. A forest is a collection of trees that share a common global catalog, directory schema, logical structure, and directory configuration.
The forest represents the security boundary within which users, computers, groups, and other objects are accessible. The objects held within a domain can be grouped into organizational units OUs.
OUs can contain other OUs—domains are containers in this sense. Microsoft recommends using OUs rather than domains for structure and simplifying the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the recommended level at which to apply group policies , which are Active Directory objects formally named group policy objects GPOs , although policies can also be applied to domains or sites see below.
The OU is the level at which administrative powers are commonly delegated, but delegation can be performed on individual objects or attributes as well. Organizational units do not each have a separate namespace.
As a consequence, for compatibility with Legacy NetBios implementations, user accounts with an identical sAMAccountName are not allowed within the same domain even if the accounts objects are in separate OUs.
This is because sAMAccountName, a user object attribute, must be unique within the domain. In general, the reason for this lack of allowance for duplicate names through hierarchical directory placement is that Microsoft primarily relies on the principles of NetBIOS , which is a flat-namespace method of network object management that, for Microsoft software, goes all the way back to Windows NT 3.
Allowing for duplication of object names in the directory, or completely removing the use of NetBIOS names, would prevent backward compatibility with legacy software and equipment. Workarounds include adding a digit to the end of the username.
Because duplicate usernames cannot exist within a domain, account name generation poses a significant challenge for large organizations that cannot be easily subdivided into separate domains, such as students in a public school system or university who must be able to use any computer across the network.
In Microsoft's Active Directory, OUs do not confer access permissions, and objects placed within OUs are not automatically assigned access privileges based on their containing OU. This is a design limitation specific to Active Directory. Active Directory requires a separate step for an administrator to assign an object in an OU as a member of a group also within that OU.
Relying on OU location alone to determine access permissions is unreliable, because the object may not have been assigned to the group object for that OU. A common workaround for an Active Directory administrator is to write a custom PowerShell or Visual Basic script to automatically create and maintain a user group for each OU in their directory. The scripts are run periodically to update the group to match the OU's account membership but are unable to instantly update the security groups anytime the directory changes, as occurs in competing directories where security is directly implemented into the directory itself.
Such groups are known as shadow groups. Once created, these shadow groups are selectable in place of the OU in the administrative tools. Microsoft refers to shadow groups in the Server Reference documentation but does not explain how to create them. There are no built-in server methods or console snap-ins for managing shadow groups. The division of an organization's information infrastructure into a hierarchy of one or more domains and top-level OUs is a key decision.
Common models are by business unit, by geographical location, by IT Service, or by object type and hybrids of these.
OUs should be structured primarily to facilitate administrative delegation, and secondarily, to facilitate group policy application. Although OUs form an administrative boundary, the only true security boundary is the forest itself and an administrator of any domain in the forest must be trusted across all domains in the forest.
The Active Directory database is organized in partitions , each holding specific object types and following a specific replication pattern. Microsoft often refers to these partitions as 'naming contexts'. The 'Configuration' partition contains information on the physical structure and configuration of the forest such as the site topology.
Both replicate to all domains in the Forest. The 'Domain' partition holds all objects created in that domain and replicates only within its domain.
Sites are physical rather than logical groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. Site definitions are independent of the domain and OU structure and are common across the forest.
Sites are used to control network traffic generated by replication and also to refer clients to the nearest domain controllers DCs. Microsoft Exchange Server uses the site topology for mail routing.
Policies can also be defined at the site level. Each DC has a copy of the Active Directory. Servers joined to Active Directory that is not domain controllers are called Member Servers. Global catalog GC servers provide a global listing of all objects in the Forest. However, to minimize replication traffic and keep the GC's database small, only selected attributes of each object are replicated.
This is called the partial attribute set PAS. Active Directory synchronizes changes using multi-master replication. Intra-site replication is frequent and automatic as a result of change notification, which triggers peers to begin a pull replication cycle. Inter-site replication intervals are typically less frequent and do not use change notification by default, although this is configurable and can be made identical to intra-site replication.
Each link can have a 'cost' e. Replication may occur transitively through several site links on same-protocol site link bridges , if the cost is low, although KCC automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections.
Site-to-site replication can be configured to occur between a bridgehead server in each site, which then replicates the changes to other DCs within the site. Replication for Active Directory zones is automatically configured when DNS is activated in the domain-based by the site.
SMTP cannot be used for replicating the default Domain partition. In general, a network utilizing Active Directory has more than one licensed Windows server computer. Backup and restore of Active Directory is possible for a network with a single domain controller, [39] but Microsoft recommends more than one domain controller to provide automatic failover protection of the directory.
Certain Microsoft products such as SQL Server [42] [43] and Exchange [44] can interfere with the operation of a domain controller, necessitating isolation of these products on additional Windows servers. Combining them can make configuration or troubleshooting of either the domain controller or the other installed software more difficult. Physical hardware costs for the many separate servers can be reduced through the use of virtualization , although for proper failover protection, Microsoft recommends not running multiple virtualized domain controllers on the same physical hardware.
The Active-Directory database , the directory store , in Windows Server uses the JET Blue -based Extensible Storage Engine ESE98 and is limited to 16 terabytes and 2 billion objects but only 1 billion security principals in each domain controller's database. Microsoft has created NTDS databases with more than 2 billion objects. Called NTDS.
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